Antibiotics, Honey Bees and Resistance

A group of scientists at Yale University led by Dr.Nancy Moran, have discovered that bacteria in the guts of honeybees are highly resistant to the antibiotic tetracycline. This specific antibiotic, which is good in itself,  was  used for  decades in the United States as preventative medication in domesticated hives. As a result, the "good" and "healthy" bacteria that live in  honeybees' guts, have been altered, and slowly became resistant or used to the medication. Researchers have identified 8 different tetracycline resistance genes among American honeybees that were treated with this medicine. However, those same genes were almost absent in bees, in countries where this specific antibiotic was banned, (and still banned today).

Therefore this prevention (giving the tetracycline in case the bees become sick) may have been detrimental to the honeybee well being in the long run. Like us, honeybees have a lot of beneficial bacteria that live in their guts.  A healthy intestine with healthy living bacteria  play  important roles in neutralizing toxin's in the bee's food for instance, and also in defending the bee against pathogens, or diseases.

By wanting to prevent diseases and strengthen the colonies this automatic long term  treatment may have actually weakened the honeybees internal system making them more susceptible to be sick, and perhaps decline.


From: Journal of the American Society for Microbiology ; Long-Term Exposure to Antibiotics Has Caused Accumulation of Resistance Determinants in the Gut Microbiota of Honeybees, Nancy Moran      (http://mbio.asm.org/content/3/6/e00377-12)

Violins and Bees

I have talked about propolis, a natural plant resin that the bees collect and use in their hives, mainly to coat the interior of their house. This habit serves them well! It helps to prevent wind drafts in the hive by applying the propolis on the wooden ware. Also, known only recently, scientists have discovered that the honeybee will eat the propolis when she feels sick.

Combining beeswax and propolis together makes the new substance more plastic and very strong. During the antiquity, people from the Mediterranean would use a concoction made of honeybee wax melted with some plants resin that they would then apply to hot to the hulls and decks of their  ships as protection again the salty water and natural elements. Early on, it was "discovered" that hot beeswax would penetrate the wood and the resin would harden the wax into a strong varnish-like coat. This layer was virtually waterproof.

Later, mineral pigments were added to the hot wax/resin mixture. This new colored substance was then used to paint Greek warships. This technique evolved to the known encaustic painting which was used on wood, canvas and even marble statues.

Furniture-makers in Europe used also a combination of beeswax and resin to protect their work. Today, this extraordinary mix not only dries to a resinous coat, but remain plastic and blends with the original varnish that was applied many years ago.

Stradivarius mixing oil, beeswax and propolis

Varnishes were also use to coat string instruments like violas, cellos and violins. However this guarded secret substance, needed to be in a liquid form in order to be brushed on instruments. Different formula were concocted, and never to be revealed. Those varnishes were made of plant resins combined with oils like linseed, honeybee propolis, gums and other oils. The usage of beeswax was commonly added to the mix to decrease the brittleness of the resin. This type of "flexible" finish was need not only to protect the string instrument but also to preserve its resonance. This type of varnish had a higher proportion of resins, and a hard, shiny surface.

The great violin Master, Stradivarius knew these secret unique blends of oils, resins, beeswax and propolis. He used them in a way that only him knew the correct proportion of each natural product creating the secret varnish formula for his high prized string instruments. Obviously, we know now that the amount of heat applied to the mixture causes specific chemical reactions affecting the properties of each "ingredient" in the finish product. Thus was this the secret?

Bibliography:
Stradivarius in the Jungle, Human Ecology, April 2008 A.M. Stearman

Beeswax...the Magic

Beeswax (white scales) 

In the insects kingdom, many of them  secrete wax from glands. It is usually to protect themselves against the natural elements, like rain, or dryness. However, honeybees over time have developed special glands in the worker bees. They actually have 4 pairs of wax glands which are located on their abdomen (see picture). Queens and drones do not possess these glands, therefore they cannot produce wax. What I found extraordinary is the fact that each little white scale is unique...just like snowflakes...
To produce the wax, a worker bee has to be about 3 weeks old. This wax is used to build honeycombs. Later in life when the bee becomes a forager, she looses the ability to create wax. Beeswax is a complex substance that Man cannot replicates. The chemical formula of beeswax is: C15 H31 CO2 C30 H61!

"Beeswax is a very stable material. Researchers and archaeologists have discovered beeswax thousands of years old (in pyramids for example) and pointed out very little deterioration, being nearly similar to beeswax that is produced today. Beeswax is insoluble in water, in fact it's been brought up from ship wrecks after years under salt water and is still in good condition."


The production of beeswax in the United States is about 1 to 2 pounds (1 to 1.5 kg) of beeswax per 100 pounds(45kg) of honey produced!

Pouring warm wax in molds

Beeswax for candles was used exclusively during church's ceremonies and were very expansive, because of its rarity. "Since the 4th. century AC, it was required by the Roman Catholic Church that only beeswax candles should be used in church." (Crane) It was therefore  a major improvement in Europe when beeswax candles were used at last by Royalty during the XIV century, and later by the end of the XV century by some nobles, and grand merchants. No wonder those higher classes liked the beeswax better... it burned pure, clean with a gentle sweet aroma without any smoky flames, foul and acrid odor!






During the Middle Ages, most early western cultures in common households used candles rendered from animal's fat. They were called tallow.  
There were 4 types of candles available for purchase at that time:
The tallow, the cheapest was made using one type of animal; cow suet.
The tallow mix fat, cheap, 2/3 cow suet and 1/3 lamb suet or cattle and sheep.
The tallow mix with beeswax, mid-range expansive.
The candle made with beeswax, the most expansive.

Fat simmering!

Candle-making was a great booming business during the Middle ages. The candle makers ( making tallows ) went from house to house, making candles from the kitchen fats saved for that precise purpose. They also made their own, and sold them from small candle shops. Wicks were usually made 

Making candles

of linen threads 3-5 twisted together.  

Candle shop

The chandlers (making beeswax candles) went from church to church, manor to manor , and to castles...  beeswax at that time was so precious that the clergy, nobles and Royals had hives of their own, where they lived. They feared "some" would steal their wax. 


By the end of the XIII century, this candle making boom in England and France became so important that the candle makers and chandlers decided to form a guild. Prices, weights and techniques were set and heavily regulated. For instance, under Louis XIV in France, one candle made of beeswax was 2.5 livers, which was at the time the salary of specialized journeyman! So only the very wealthy could afford such a luxury. 

Tallow's and beeswax candles were used until the XVIII century in Europe and America, until the whaling industry developed  the "spermaci wax". This was a wax obtained by crystallizing sperm whale oil. 

Whaling

I love my bees and all they give us, but I am thankful for Humphrey Davy, an English scientist who invented the first electric light bulb in 1800. He first invented an electric battery, which wires were  connected to a piece of carbon; the carbon glowed...producing light!
I love my bees and all they give us, but I am thankful for Humphrey Davy, an English scientist who invented the first electric light bulb in 1800. He first invented an electric battery, which wires were  connected to a piece of carbon; the carbon glowed...producing light!I love my bees and all they give us, but I am thankful for Humphrey Davy, an English scientist who invented the first electric light bulb in 1800. He first invented an electric battery, which wires were  connected to a piece of carbon; the carbon glowed...producing light!

Humphrey Davy

First light bulbs!

Citation/Bibliography:
Crane, E. The World History of Beekeeping and Honey Hunting, 1999
Sim, A. The Tudor Housewife, 1996

 

The Last Chore...

Ben placing a waxed cardboard over hive

Our 2 colonies in Shakopee

What a beautiful day to say good night to our bees...it was 64 F (17C) on Nov.10 2012! Later on it was 72 F (22C)! It felt very strange, to remove all the pails left 4-5 weeks ago; it was not cold. We even saw a good amount of bees flying around, looking suspicious at us. We did not think that we needed to use our smoker because usually the honeybees are all inside their house and don't pay attention at us at this time of year. But indeed they were curious, as Ben was making the lower entrance larger and stapling a screen over to let the bees and air flow, but to prevent the mice to set foot in what they would consider a golden heaven...Heated,




and food for the whole winter!

So, I went back to the car, and got the precious smoker fired up, one last time! We did not move any boxes because in the last month or so, the bees too prepare their hive for winter. For instance, they "patch" any space where the wind could finds its way inside the hive. This task takes many days to do and a lot of energy is required from the little ones. They also build wax combs between each box like a bridge, to help the honeybees to move up and down during winter, from nest to food.

Moisture board on top of hive in Chanhassen

We do know that each colony has bees and we could see from above that they had been in a cluster, thus ready for winter. After placing a "moisture" board on top of the hive, which absorb the moisture that  bees will make during the cold months just by living. If it is wet in the hive, the bees have no chances of surviving...they will freeze to death. 

Adding the waxed cardboard cover

Replacing the telescopic top

We plugged all the circled entrances, except the top one. With the larger opening at the bottom and the circled opening at the top, it will be enough to ventilate the whole colony. 

Before leaving, we looked at the hives one more time...gave them three gentle pats and said the beekeepers' prayer : "Good night little ones, have a safe winter and see you in the spring" We know that the honeybees did their best to be ready to again face a certain harsh Minnesota winter. We also know that WE did our best to prepare the bees since last spring using  the best ways we know. However, somehow every year, I feel the same way... a bit sad that I won't see my honeybees for many months, and wondering about them until spring. But I have to remind myself (often!) that  it is nature; and nature rewards the fittest. So, we will see in March 2013!

All wrapped up for the long winter: Hives in Chanhassen

To anyone who reads this blog, I  wish you a good and safe winter.
Thank you,
Karine